Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Transport - Internal structure of the root (transverse section)

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Describe the internal tissues of the root (piliferous layer, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular tissues)
- Relate the structure of each tissue to its function
- Explain how the casparian strip in the endodermis acts like a filter to protect the plant from absorbing harmful substances

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study the transverse section of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous roots
- Identify and describe the piliferous layer, cortex, endodermis (casparian strip), pericycle and vascular tissues
- Discuss the function of each tissue in the root

How do the internal tissues of the root facilitate water and mineral salt absorption?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 123
- Digital resources
- Charts/photomicrographs of root cross-sections

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Transport - Structure and function of stems in transport
Transport - Structure and function of leaves in transport

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Describe the internal structure of the stem (epidermis, cortex, pith, vascular tissues)
- Relate the structure of the stem to its transport function
- Connect the waxy cuticle on stems to why some plant stems feel smooth and resist water loss

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study cross-sectional drawings of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous stems
- Identify the epidermis, cortex (parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma), pith and vascular tissues
- Discuss the functions of the stem as part of the transport system

How does the structure of the stem support its transport function?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 125
- Digital resources
- Fresh plant stems
- Charts of stem cross-sections
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 127
- Fresh plant leaves

- Oral questions - Observation - Written assignments

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Transport - Structure, functions and adaptations of xylem vessels
Transport - Structure, functions and adaptations of phloem tissue
Transport - Arrangement of vascular tissues in roots of monocots and dicots (Practical)

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Describe the structure and adaptations of xylem vessels and tracheids
- Explain how xylem vessels are adapted to transport water and mineral salts
- Relate the lignin deposits in xylem walls to why woody stems are rigid and do not collapse easily

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study diagrams of xylem vessels and tracheids and discuss their structure
- Discuss the adaptations of xylem to its function (continuous tube, lignified walls, pits, dead cells)
- Search for information on the structure and adaptations of xylem vessels

How are xylem vessels adapted to transport water in plants?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 129
- Digital resources
- Charts/diagrams of xylem vessels
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 131
- Charts/diagrams of phloem tissue
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 133
- Light microscope
- Fresh plant roots
- Iodine solution, scalpel, glass slides, cover slips

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Transport - Arrangement of vascular tissues in stems of monocots and dicots (Practical)
Transport - Mechanisms of water uptake in plants (osmosis and active transport)
Transport - Movement of water up the plant (transpiration pull, cohesion, adhesion, capillarity, root pressure)

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Observe and draw cross-sections of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous stems under a microscope
- Compare the arrangement of vascular tissues in stems of monocots and dicots
- Collect plant specimens responsibly without destroying other plants in the environment
- Describe the mechanisms of water uptake in plants (osmosis, active transport)
- Explain how water moves from soil particles to the xylem vessels in the root
- Relate osmosis in root hair cells to why plants wilt when placed in very salty soil

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Cut thin cross-sections of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous stems, stain and observe under a microscope
- Draw well-labelled cross-sectional drawings of monocot and dicot stems
- Outline the similarities and differences of vascular tissues in stems of monocots and dicots
- Search for information on mechanisms of water and mineral salt uptake in plants
- Study diagrams showing the absorption of water by plant roots
- Discuss how water moves from the soil particles through the root hair cells to the xylem vessels by osmosis

How does the arrangement of vascular tissues differ in stems of monocots and dicots?
How does water move from the soil into the root of a plant?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 135
- Light microscope
- Fresh plant stems
- Iodine solution, scalpel, glass slides, cover slips
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 137
- Digital resources
- Charts showing water absorption in plants
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 139
- Internet access

- Observation - Practical assessment - Written assignments
- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Transport - Absorption of mineral salts and demonstrating water uptake (Practical)

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain the mechanism of mineral salt absorption (active transport and diffusion)
- Carry out an experiment to demonstrate uptake of water in plants using dye/ink
- Handle chemicals like food colouring safely and dispose of waste materials responsibly after the experiment

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss how mineral salts are absorbed by active transport and diffusion
- Carry out a dye/ink experiment to demonstrate uptake of water in plants
- Observe exudation and guttation in the experimental set-up and draw conclusions

How are mineral salts absorbed by plant roots?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 141
- Fresh young plants
- Food colouring/ink
- Glass beaker, scalpel, distilled water

- Practical assessment - Observation - Written assignments

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Transport - The process of transpiration

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Define transpiration and describe how it occurs through the stomata
- Relate the internal structure of the leaf to the process of transpiration
- Explain why clothes dry faster on a sunny windy day, linking it to how transpiration increases under similar conditions

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss the process of transpiration and how water vapour diffuses out through the stomata
- Study the internal structure of the leaf and relate it to transpiration (spongy mesophyll, sub-stomatal air spaces, guard cells)
- Discuss the role of guard cells in controlling the opening and closing of stomata

How does transpiration occur in plant leaves?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 143
- Digital resources
- Charts of leaf internal structure

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Transport - Structural factors affecting the rate of transpiration

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Describe the structural factors that affect the rate of transpiration (leaf size, leaf surface, number and position of stomata, leaf hairs)
- Explain how each structural factor affects transpiration rate
- Explain why cactus plants survive in arid areas by relating their leaf structure to reduced water loss

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss structural factors affecting the rate of transpiration (broad lamina, glossy surface, number of stomata, sunken stomata, leaf hairs)
- Explain midday closure and reversed stomatal rhythm
- Search for information on structural factors using available reference materials

How do leaf structures influence the rate of water loss in plants?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 145
- Digital resources
- Internet access

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Transport - Environmental factors affecting the rate of transpiration (Temperature and light intensity practicals)
Transport - Environmental factors affecting the rate of transpiration (Wind practical and other factors)
Transport - Translocation of manufactured food in plants

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Carry out experiments to demonstrate the effect of temperature and light intensity on transpiration
- Explain how temperature and light intensity affect the rate of transpiration
- Set up a control experiment and explain its purpose in ensuring valid results
- Define translocation and describe the process in plants
- Identify the materials transported during translocation (sucrose, amino acids, vitamins)
- Relate translocation to why fruits, roots and seeds store food, as seen in everyday crops like sugarcane and sweet potatoes

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Carry out an experiment using a heat bulb to demonstrate the effect of temperature on transpiration
- Carry out an experiment using a light bulb to demonstrate the effect of light intensity on transpiration
- Compare condensation on plastic bottles/carrier bags in both experiments and draw conclusions
- Discuss the process of translocation of manufactured food from the leaves to other parts of the plant
- Watch animations on translocation and share with peers
- Identify the vascular tissues (phloem) involved in translocation

How do temperature and light intensity affect the rate of transpiration?
How is manufactured food transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 147
- Potted plants
- Heat bulb, light bulb
- Transparent carrier bags, elastic bands
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 149
- Improvised fan materials
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 151
- Digital resources
- Internet access

- Practical assessment - Observation - Written assignments
- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Transport - Demonstrating translocation by bark ringing and significance of transport in plants
Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Meaning and significance of gaseous exchange in plants

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Carry out a bark ringing (girdling) experiment to demonstrate translocation
- Explain the importance of transport in plants
- Carry out bark ringing responsibly without destroying the entire plant, showing care for the environment

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Carry out a bark ringing/girdling experiment on a young tree to demonstrate translocation
- Observe the swelling above the ring and wilting below and draw conclusions
- Discuss the importance of transport in plants (distribution of nutrients, removal of waste products)

What evidence confirms translocation of food in plants?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 153
- Young tree/woody plant
- Knife, permanent marker pen
- Digital device for recording
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 151
- Digital resources
- Internet access

- Practical assessment - Observation - Written assignments

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Stomata as a site for gaseous exchange (Practical)
Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Distribution of stomata in different plant habitats
Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Lenticels as gaseous exchange sites in stems

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Observe stomata in leaves using a microscope
- Describe the structure of stomata and guard cells
- Handle microscope slides and nail polish carefully, disposing of waste materials appropriately after the practical

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Apply clear nail polish on the lower surface of a leaf, peel off after drying and observe under a microscope
- Identify stomata and guard cells under the microscope
- Discuss the structure of guard cells (thin elastic outer walls, thick inner walls) and how they control the opening and closing of stomata

What is the structure of stomata and how are they adapted for gaseous exchange?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 155
- Fresh plant leaves
- Clear nail polish
- Light microscope, glass slides, cover slips
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 157
- Fresh leaf samples from different habitats
- Light microscope, nail polish
- Glass slides, cover slips
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 161
- Photomicrographs of lenticels
- Digital resources

- Practical assessment - Observation - Written assignments

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Pneumatophores as gaseous exchange sites in roots
Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Photosynthetic theory of stomatal opening and closing

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Describe the structure and adaptations of pneumatophores for gaseous exchange
- Explain the mechanism of gaseous exchange through pneumatophores
- Relate pneumatophores to the visible breathing roots of mangrove trees growing in swampy areas along the Kenyan coast

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study photographs/diagrams of pneumatophores and discuss their structure (lenticels, aerenchyma tissues)
- Discuss how pneumatophores grow above the water level to obtain oxygen from the atmosphere
- Explain the role of aerenchyma tissues in storing air for gaseous exchange

How do plants in waterlogged areas carry out gaseous exchange?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 163
- Photomicrographs/pictures of pneumatophores
- Digital resources
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 165
- Digital resources
- Charts showing open and closed stomata

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Starch-sugar inter-conversion theory
Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Potassium ion theory of stomatal opening and closing
Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - The process of respiration and aerobic respiration
Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Anaerobic respiration in plants

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Describe the mechanism of opening and closing of stomata using the starch-sugar inter-conversion theory
- Explain the role of pH in the conversion of starch to glucose and vice versa
- Connect how changes in carbon (IV) oxide levels during day and night trigger a chain reaction that opens or closes stomata
- Define anaerobic respiration and state its word equation
- Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
- Relate anaerobic respiration to the production of alcohol in local brewing and the rising of bread dough during baking

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss how during the day, carbon (IV) oxide is used for photosynthesis causing pH to rise favouring conversion of starch to glucose
- Explain how glucose increases osmotic pressure of guard cells causing water uptake and stomata to open
- Discuss the reverse process at night when carbon (IV) oxide accumulates lowering pH
- Discuss anaerobic respiration as the breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen producing ethanol, carbon (IV) oxide and less energy
- Compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration in terms of oxygen requirement, energy released and products
- Discuss where anaerobic respiration occurs in plants (waterlogged areas, germinating seeds)

How does the conversion between starch and sugar control stomatal opening?
How does anaerobic respiration differ from aerobic respiration?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 167
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 168
- Internet access
- Charts comparing the three theories
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 169
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 171
- Digital resources
- Internet access

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Investigating aerobic and anaerobic respiration (Practical)

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Carry out experiments to distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
- Explain the role of calcium hydroxide solution and paraffin in the experiments
- Observe safety precautions when handling chemicals and dispose of waste materials appropriately after the experiment

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Set up experiments using germinating bean seeds to demonstrate aerobic respiration (test tube A) and boiled bean seeds to demonstrate anaerobic respiration (test tube B)
- Observe the colour change of calcium hydroxide solution and record temperature readings
- Discuss the role of paraffin in blocking oxygen entry

How can aerobic and anaerobic respiration be demonstrated experimentally?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 172
- Germinating and boiled bean seeds
- Test tubes, delivery tubes, rubber stoppers
- Calcium hydroxide solution, paraffin, glucose solution

- Practical assessment - Observation - Written assignments

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Economic importance of anaerobic respiration

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain the economic importance of anaerobic respiration in various industries
- Describe how anaerobic respiration is applied in brewing, baking, dairy and biogas production
- Relate anaerobic respiration to locally made products like yoghurt, cheese, bread and traditional fermented drinks

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss the economic importance of anaerobic respiration in brewing, baking, biogas production, dairy industry, sewage treatment, silage formation, pharmaceutical industry and compost manure production
- Explain how yeast breaks down sugars anaerobically in brewing and baking
- Discuss how bacteria produce lactic acid in dairy products

How is anaerobic respiration applied in everyday industries and products?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 174
- Digital resources
- Charts showing applications of anaerobic respiration

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants

Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Biogas production project
Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Significance of gaseous exchange and respiration to plants and the environment

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Demonstrate anaerobic respiration through a biogas production project
- Describe the procedure and observations in biogas production
- Relate biogas production to waste management and renewable energy solutions in rural Kenyan communities

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Set up a simple biogas digester using organic waste and water in a sealed container
- Observe balloon inflation over 5-7 days as biogas is produced
- Test the collected gas by bringing it near a flame and observing the blue flame

How can anaerobic respiration be harnessed for biogas production?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 175
- Large plastic bottle/container
- Organic waste, water
- Rubber tubing, balloon, tape
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 177
- Digital resources
- Portfolio materials

- Project assessment - Observation - Written report

Anatomy and Physiology of Plants
Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Gaseous Exchange and Respiration - Assessment and review on gaseous exchange and respiration
Significance of transport in animals
Types of circulatory systems - Open and closed circulatory systems
Types of circulatory systems - Single and double circulatory systems

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Answer assessment questions on gaseous exchange sites, stomatal mechanisms, types of respiration and economic importance of anaerobic respiration
- Distinguish between gaseous exchange and respiration in plants
- Connect the concepts learned to real-life applications such as food preservation, energy production and environmental conservation
- Define the term transport system in animals
- Explain the importance of transport in animals
- Relate transport systems in animals to real-life examples such as how blood carries oxygen to muscles during exercise

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Answer assessment exercise questions on gaseous exchange and respiration
- Distinguish between gaseous exchange and respiration
- Identify and explain adaptations of gaseous exchange structures (stomata, lenticels, pneumatophores, aerenchyma)
- Describe mechanisms of opening and closing of stomata using the three theories
- Search for information on the meaning and importance of transport systems in animals using print and non-print media
- Discuss the meaning of a transport system in animals
- Explain the importance of transport systems in distributing oxygen, nutrients, hormones and removing waste products
- Share findings with peers

How are gaseous exchange and respiration essential to the survival of plants?
Why is a transport system important for the survival of animals?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book Grade 10 pg. 178
- Digital resources
- Past assessment questions
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 186
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 188
- Charts showing circulatory systems
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 189
- Charts showing single and double circulation

- Written tests - Oral questions - Observation
- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in insects
Transport system in fish - Structure and blood flow

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Identify the components of the transport system in insects
- Describe the movement of haemolymph within the body cavity of an insect
- Relate the open circulatory system in insects to real-life observations of how small-bodied insects like houseflies and cockroaches function efficiently

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Search for information on the transport system in insects
- Study the structure of the transport system in insects including the dorsal vessel, ostia, haemolymph and haemocoel
- Describe the circulation of haemolymph in the body cavity
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the transport system in insects

What are the components of the circulatory system in insects and how does haemolymph flow?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 190
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing insect circulatory system
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 192
- Charts showing fish circulatory system

- Labelled drawings - Oral questions - Peer assessment

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in fish - Illustrating the circulatory system
Transport system in amphibians - Structure and blood flow
Transport system in amphibians - Illustrating the circulatory system

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Illustrate the structure of the transport system in fish
- Explain why fish have a single closed circulatory system
- Relate the efficiency of the fish circulatory system to real-life observations of how fish remain active in water

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the circulatory system in fish
- Use digital devices to search for video animations of the transport system in fish
- Exchange exercise books with peers for peer assessment of drawings
- Discuss the advantages of a single closed circulatory system in fish

Why is the circulatory system in fish described as a single closed system?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 193
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 194
- Charts showing amphibian circulatory system
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 195

- Peer assessment of drawings - Oral questions - Written assignments

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in reptiles - Structure and blood flow

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Identify the structures that compose the transport system in reptiles
- Describe pulmonary and systemic circulation in reptiles
- Connect the partial septum in the reptile heart to real-life understanding of why reptiles like chameleons and lizards bask in the sun to regulate body temperature

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Search for information on the transport system in reptiles using print and non-print resources
- Study illustrations of the circulatory system in reptiles
- Identify the three-chambered heart with a partial septum and the four-chambered heart of the crocodile
- Describe pulmonary and systemic circulation in reptiles

How does the partial septum in the reptile heart reduce mixing of blood?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 197
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing reptile circulatory system

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in reptiles - Illustrating the circulatory system
Transport system in mammals - Structure and components
Transport system in mammals - Pulmonary and systemic circulation

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Illustrate the structure of the transport system in reptiles
- Explain the significance of the partial septum in the reptile heart
- Relate the ectothermic nature of reptiles to real-life observations of lizards sunbathing on rocks and walls
- Describe pulmonary and systemic circulation in mammals
- Trace the pathway of blood flow in the mammalian circulatory system
- Connect double circulation in mammals to real-life experiences like increased heartbeat rate during running or exercise

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the circulatory system in reptiles
- Discuss the role of the partial septum in reducing mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
- Compare the circulatory systems of amphibians and reptiles
- Share drawings with peers for peer assessment
- Use digital devices to search for video animations illustrating the transport system in mammals
- Trace the pathway of blood flow in the mammalian circulatory system
- Describe pulmonary circulation (heart to lungs and back) and systemic circulation (heart to body and back)
- Discuss with peers

Why is the transport system in reptiles suited to their ectothermic nature?
How does blood flow through the mammalian heart in pulmonary and systemic circulation?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 198
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 199
- Charts showing mammalian circulatory system
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 200
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Peer assessment of drawings - Oral questions - Written assignments
- Oral questions - Written assignments - Class discussions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in mammals - Illustrating the circulatory system

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Illustrate the structure of the transport system in mammals
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the mammalian circulatory system
- Relate the efficient separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to real-life benefits like high energy levels in active mammals such as cheetahs and horses

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the circulatory system in mammals
- Use digital devices to search for pictures showing the transport system in mammals
- Exchange exercise books with peers for peer assessment
- Compare the circulatory systems of insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles and mammals

Why do mammals have a more efficient circulatory system compared to other animals?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 200
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Peer assessment of drawings - Written assignments - Oral questions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Transport system in mammals - Dissection of a small mammal
Pumping mechanism of the mammalian heart - Structure of the heart

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Dissect a small mammal to observe parts of the transport system
- Identify the heart, lungs, blood vessels and other organs of the transport system
- Handle specimens humanely and relate the observed structures to how the circulatory system supports life in real mammals

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Wear protective clothing (hand gloves and laboratory coat)
- With the help of the teacher, carry out the dissection of a freshly killed rat or rabbit
- Observe the thoracic cavity containing the heart and lungs
- Identify the pulmonary vein, pulmonary artery, blood vessels and renal veins
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the transport system of the mammal

What structures can be observed in the transport system of a dissected mammal?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 201
- Freshly killed rat or rabbit
- Dissecting board and pins
- Cotton wool
- Hand lens
- Protective clothing
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 202
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing the mammalian heart

- Labelled drawings - Observation - Oral questions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Pumping mechanism of the mammalian heart - The cardiac cycle

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Describe the pumping mechanism of the mammalian heart
- Explain systole and diastole in the cardiac cycle
- Connect the cardiac cycle to real-life experiences such as feeling the pulse at the wrist or neck during exercise

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Watch animations illustrating the pumping mechanism of the mammalian heart
- Describe the flow of blood from the vena cava through the heart chambers and out through the aorta
- Explain the role of valves in preventing backflow of blood
- Discuss the contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) phases of the cardiac cycle

How does the heart pump blood through the body in a continuous cycle?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 203
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Class discussions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Human lymphatic system - Structure and components
Human lymphatic system - Functions

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Describe the human lymphatic system
- Identify the components of the lymphatic system
- Relate the lymphatic system to real-life situations such as swelling of lymph nodes during infections like sore throat or tonsillitis
- Explain the functions of the human lymphatic system
- Describe how the lymphatic system helps maintain fluid balance and defend against infections
- Relate lymphatic functions to real-life examples such as how swollen ankles (oedema) occur when the lymphatic system fails to drain excess fluid

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Watch video animations on the human lymphatic system using digital devices
- Identify the components of the lymphatic system (lymph fluid, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and lymphoid organs)
- Discuss the structure and arrangement of the lymphatic system
- Share findings with peers for discussion
- Discuss the functions of the human lymphatic system including maintaining fluid balance, filtering pathogens and absorbing fats
- Explain how lymph nodes house immune cells that detect and fight infections
- Describe how the lymphatic system returns excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream
- Share work with classmates for comparison

What are the components of the human lymphatic system and how are they arranged?
How does the lymphatic system protect the body against infections?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 204
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing the lymphatic system
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 205
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation
- Written assignments - Oral questions - Class discussions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Human immune system - Types of immunity
Human immune system - Active and passive immunity

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Describe the immune system in human beings
- Distinguish between inherited and acquired immunity
- Relate immunity to real-life experiences such as why a person who recovers from chickenpox rarely gets it again

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study a flow chart illustrating forms of immunity
- Distinguish between inherited (innate) and acquired immunity
- Discuss how inherited immunity is passed from parent to offspring
- Explain how acquired immunity develops through interaction with the environment
- Distinguish between active and passive immunity

What is the difference between inherited and acquired immunity?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 206
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing types of immunity
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 207
- Reference books

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Blood clotting mechanism in humans

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Describe the mechanism of blood clotting in human beings
- Identify the role of platelets, thromboplastin, thrombin and fibrin in blood clotting
- Connect blood clotting to real-life experiences such as how a cut on the skin stops bleeding and forms a scab

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Watch video animations on the mechanism of blood clotting using digital devices
- Identify the blood cells (platelets) involved in blood clotting
- Describe the steps in the blood clotting process: platelets release thromboplastin, prothrombin converts to thrombin, fibrinogen converts to fibrin
- Discuss the role of calcium ions and vitamin K in blood clotting

What happens in the body when a blood vessel is injured to stop bleeding?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 207
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing the blood clotting process

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Blood clotting mechanism - Importance and flow chart

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain the importance of blood clotting in mammals
- Illustrate the blood clotting process using a flow chart
- Relate blood clotting to real-life medical situations such as why doctors check clotting time before surgery and why haemophilia patients need special care

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study a flow chart summarising the blood clotting process
- Describe the mechanism of blood clotting step by step
- Discuss the importance of blood clotting in preventing blood loss, entry of pathogens and healing of wounds
- Share responses with peers for comparison and assessment

Why is blood clotting important for the survival of mammals?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 208
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Written assignments - Oral questions - Flow chart construction

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

ABO and rhesus factor blood grouping systems - Blood groups and antigens
ABO and rhesus factor blood grouping systems - Rhesus factor and blood transfusion
Respiratory surfaces in animals - General characteristics
Respiratory structures in insects - Tracheal system

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain the ABO blood grouping system in human beings
- Identify the antigens and antibodies in each blood group
- Relate blood grouping to real-life situations such as why hospitals test blood groups before transfusion
- Explain the rhesus factor blood grouping system
- Describe blood donor-recipient compatibility
- Connect blood transfusion compatibility to real-life medical emergencies where matching blood types saves lives

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Search for information on the ABO blood grouping system
- Discuss how antigens A and B determine blood groups (A, B, AB and O)
- Identify the antibodies present in each blood group
- Prepare charts illustrating blood groups, antigens and antibodies
- Visit a health facility where possible and discuss blood grouping with a resource person
- Discuss the rhesus factor (Rh+ and Rh-) and its role in blood transfusion and pregnancy
- Explain the concepts of universal donor (O) and universal recipient (AB)
- Prepare charts illustrating blood donor-recipient compatibility
- Discuss the importance of knowing one's blood type and rhesus status for medical safety

What determines a person's blood group?
Why is it important to determine blood compatibility before transfusion?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 209
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing ABO blood grouping
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 210
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing blood donor-recipient compatibility
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 211
- Reference books
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 213
- Charts showing tracheal system

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Chart construction
- Written assignments - Oral questions - Chart construction

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Respiratory structures in insects - Adaptations and observation
Respiratory structures in fish - Structure of gills

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Describe the adaptations of the tracheal system for gaseous exchange
- Observe spiracles on a locust or grasshopper using a hand lens
- Connect the observation of spiracles to real-life pest management where understanding insect breathing helps in designing pest control methods

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Collect a live or dead locust or grasshopper and observe the spiracles using a hand lens
- Identify the small oval openings (spiracles) on both sides of the thorax and abdomen
- Discuss how spiracles are adapted for gaseous exchange in different habitats (terrestrial and aquatic insects)
- Draw the tracheal system of an insect and label the spiracles, trachea and air sacs

How are the spiracles of insects adapted for gaseous exchange in their habitats?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 214
- Live or dead locust or grasshopper
- Hand lens
- Boiling tube
- Protective clothing
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 216
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing fish gills

- Labelled drawings - Observation - Peer assessment

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Respiratory structures in fish - Counter current flow and practical observation
Respiratory structures in amphibians
Respiratory structures in birds

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Explain the counter current exchange system in fish gills
- Observe the structure of gills of a bony fish through dissection
- Relate counter current flow to real-life engineering concepts such as how heat exchangers in factories work on a similar principle

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss the counter current exchange system where blood and water flow in opposite directions across gill filaments
- Explain how this system maintains a concentration gradient for maximum oxygen absorption
- Where possible, dissect a fresh bony fish to observe the gills using a hand lens
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the gills of a bony fish

How does the counter current flow system in fish gills ensure efficient gaseous exchange?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 217
- Fresh or preserved bony fish
- Scalpel
- Hand lens
- Protective clothing
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 218
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing amphibian respiratory structures
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 220
- Charts showing bird respiratory system

- Labelled drawings - Oral questions - Observation

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Mechanism of gaseous exchange in humans - Respiratory structures
Inhalation and exhalation in humans

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Identify the structures of the respiratory system in human beings
- Describe how gaseous exchange takes place in the alveoli
- Relate the respiratory system to real-life experiences such as how a doctor listens to breathing sounds using a stethoscope to diagnose respiratory problems

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Study illustrations of the respiratory structure in human beings
- Identify the nostrils, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, lungs and diaphragm
- Describe how oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood capillaries and carbon (IV) oxide diffuses out
- Discuss the characteristics of the alveoli that allow efficient gaseous exchange

How does gaseous exchange take place in the alveoli of human lungs?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 221
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Charts showing human respiratory system
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 222
- Charts showing inhalation and exhalation

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Labelled drawings

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Model to demonstrate inhalation and exhalation
Dissection to observe gaseous exchange structures in mammals
Aerobic respiration in animals

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Construct a model to demonstrate inhalation and exhalation in human beings
- Relate the parts of the model to the structures of the human respiratory system
- Connect model-making to real-life applications of models in medical training and science education
- Dissect a small mammal to observe the gaseous exchange structures
- Identify the trachea, bronchi, lungs and alveoli in the dissected mammal
- Relate the observed structures to real-life understanding of how lung diseases like asthma affect the airways

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Set up the bell jar apparatus with rubber sheet, Y-shaped connecting tube and balloons
- Pull down the rubber sheet to demonstrate inhalation and observe the balloons inflate
- Release the rubber sheet to demonstrate exhalation and observe the balloons deflate
- Relate the rubber sheet to the diaphragm, balloons to the lungs and bell jar to the chest cavity
- Wear protective clothing
- With the help of the teacher, dissect a freshly killed rat or rabbit to observe the gaseous exchange structures
- Identify the trachea, lungs and observe the internal structures
- Connect a drinking straw to the trachea and blow air to observe the lungs inflate
- Draw a well-labelled diagram of the gaseous exchange structures

How does the bell jar model help demonstrate the process of breathing in humans?
What gaseous exchange structures can be observed in a dissected small mammal?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 224
- Bell jar or plastic bottle
- Rubber stopper
- Y-shaped connecting tube
- Balloons
- Rubber sheet
- Protective clothing
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 225
- Freshly killed rat or rabbit
- Dissecting board and pins
- Scalpel or pair of scissors
- Hand lens
- Drinking straw
- Protective clothing
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 227
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Model construction - Oral questions - Observation
- Labelled drawings - Observation - Oral questions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Demonstrating aerobic respiration in animals

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Carry out an experiment to demonstrate aerobic respiration in animals
- Explain why lime water turns milky in the presence of carbon (IV) oxide produced during respiration
- Connect the experiment to real-life understanding of why we exhale carbon (IV) oxide which can be detected by breathing into lime water

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Set up the apparatus with a small animal (snail or rat), bell jar, soda lime and lime water
- Observe changes in the lime water in flasks A and B
- Explain that lime water in flask A stays clear because soda lime absorbs carbon (IV) oxide from the atmosphere
- Explain that lime water in flask B turns milky due to carbon (IV) oxide produced by the animal during respiration

How can we demonstrate that animals produce carbon (IV) oxide during aerobic respiration?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 228
- Small animal (snail or rat)
- Bell jar
- Conical flask
- Delivery tubes
- Soda lime
- Lime water
- Protective clothing

- Observation - Oral questions - Written reports

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Anaerobic respiration and oxygen debt

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Describe the process of anaerobic respiration in animals
- Explain the concept of oxygen debt
- Relate anaerobic respiration to real-life experiences such as muscle cramps and fatigue felt after sprinting or intense exercise

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss anaerobic respiration where glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce lactic acid and energy
- Engage in vigorous physical activity for 3 minutes and observe increased breathing rate
- Explain the concept of oxygen debt as the extra amount of oxygen needed to eliminate lactic acid
- Discuss why breathing rate remains faster after stopping intense physical exercise

Why do muscles feel fatigued and sore after vigorous physical exercise?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 229
- Stopwatch
- Playfield
- Writing materials

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation of physical activity

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Factors affecting energy requirement in humans

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Identify factors affecting energy requirement in human beings
- Explain how age, sex, body size and physical activity affect energy needs
- Relate energy requirements to real-life examples such as why athletes eat more food than office workers and why growing teenagers need more energy than elderly people

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Search for information on factors affecting energy requirement in human beings
- Compare the energy needs of teenagers and the elderly, males and females, athletes and secretaries
- Discuss how pregnant and lactating mothers require more energy
- Share ideas in class for discussion

Why do different people require different amounts of energy?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 231
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Class discussions

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Respiratory substrates
Calculating the respiratory quotient
Factors affecting the rate of respiration
Importance of gaseous exchange and respiration in animals

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
- Identify the respiratory substrates broken down during respiration
- Explain why glucose is the main respiratory substrate
- Relate respiratory substrates to real-life dietary choices such as why carbohydrate-rich foods like ugali and rice are staple energy sources in many Kenyan households
- Identify factors that affect the rate of respiration in animals
- Explain how temperature, oxygen availability, substrate amount and age affect the rate of respiration
- Connect these factors to real-life examples such as why food stored in cold refrigerators lasts longer because low temperature slows down microbial respiration

In groups, learners are guided to:
- Discuss respiratory substrates including carbohydrates, fats and proteins
- Explain that glucose is the main respiratory substrate because it is readily broken down
- Discuss why fats provide more energy than carbohydrates but take longer to break down
- Explain that proteins are used for respiration only when carbohydrates and fats are unavailable
- Brainstorm and identify factors that affect the rate of respiration
- Discuss how an increase in temperature increases the rate of enzyme activity and respiration
- Explain how the amount of oxygen and substrate available affect the rate of respiration
- Discuss how age and hormones such as adrenaline affect the rate of respiration

Which food substances are broken down to provide energy during respiration?
How do changes in temperature and oxygen levels affect the rate of respiration?

- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 232
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 233
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 234
- Digital resources
- Internet access
- Reference books
- Distinction Biology Learner's Book pg. 235

- Oral questions - Written assignments - Observation
- Oral questions - Written assignments - Class discussions